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    • Board of Directors
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    • Board of Directors
      • 2001 ACB Board Minutes
        • July 7, 2001, Post-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • November 20, 2001, Board Meeting Minutes
        • November 6, 2001, Board Meeting Minutes
        • September 22 & 23, 2001, Board Meeting Minutes
      • 2002 ACB Board Minutes
        • April 30, 2002, Board Meeting Minutes
        • February 17, 2002, Board Meeting Minutes
        • JUNE 30, JULY 5, 2002, GENERAL SESSION RECORD, 41ST ANNUAL CONVENTION, HOUSTON, TEXAS
        • July 6, 2002, Post-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • June 29, 2002, Pre-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • March 17, 2002, Board Meeting Minutes
        • November 25, 2002, Board Meeting Minutes
        • September 21 & 22, 2002, Board Meeting Minutes
      • 2003 ACB Board Minutes
        • April 15, 2003, Board Meeting Minutes
        • February 11, 2003, Board Meeting Minutes
        • February 16, 2003, Board Meeting Minutes
        • February 2, 2003, Board Meeting Minutes
        • JULY 5, JULY 11, 2003, GENERAL SESSION RECORD, 42nd ANNUAL CONVENTION, PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA
        • January 16, 2003, Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 12, 2003, Post Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 5, 2003, Pre-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • March 4, 2003, Board Meeting Minutes
        • November 25, 2003, Board Meeting Minutes
      • 2004 ACB Board Minutes
        • April 1, 2004, Board Meeting Minutes
        • April 22, 2004, Board Meeting Minutes
        • August 11, September 1, October 6 & October 12, 2004, Board Meeting Minutes
        • February 15 & 16, 2004, Board Meeting Minutes
        • JULY 3, JULY 10, 2004, GENERAL SESSION RECORD, 43rd ANNUAL CONVENTION, BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA
        • January 14, 2004, Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 10, 2004, Post-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 3, 2004, Pre-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • June 22, 2004, Board Meeting Minutes
      • 2005 ACB Board Minutes
        • Convention Standing Rules, Adopted July 4, 2005
        • February 14, 2005, Board Meeting Minutes
        • JULY 2 - JULY 9, 2005, GENERAL SESSION RECORD, 44th ANNUAL CONVENTION, LAS VEGAS, NEVADA
        • January 22, & 23, 2005, Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 2, 2005, Pre-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 9, 2005, Post-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • May 11, 2005, Board Meeting Minutes
        • November 22, 2005, Board Meeting Minutes
        • October 1 & 2, 2005, Board Meeting Minutes
      • 2006 ACB Board Minutes
        • February 20 & 21, 2006, Board Meeting Minutes
        • JULY 8 - JULY 15, 2006, GENERAL SESSION RECORD, 45th ANNUAL CONVENTION, JACKSONVILLE, FLORIDA
        • July 15, 2006, Post-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 8, 2006, Pre-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • March 30, 2006, Board Meeting Minutes
        • March 6, 2006, Board Meeting Minutes
        • November 6, 2006, Board Meeting Minutes
        • September 23 & 24, 2006, Board Meeting Minutes
      • 2007 ACB Board Minutes
        • August 2, 2007, Board Meeting Minutes
        • JUNE 30 – JULY 7, 2007, CONVENTION RECORD, 46th ANNUAL CONVENTION, MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA
        • January 4, 2007, Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 7, 2007, Post-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • June 30, 2007, Pre-Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • March 10 – 11, 2007, Board Meeting Minutes
        • May 23, 2007, Board Meeting Minutes
        • October 13, 2007, Board Meeting Minutes
        • October 29, 2007, Board Meeting Minutes
      • 2008 ACB Board Minutes
        • Convention Record of the 47th annual Convention of the American Council of the Blind
        • February 8 and 9, 2008, Board Meeting Minutes
        • January 2, 2008, Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 12, 2008, Post-convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 5, 2008, Pre-convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • June 4, 2008, Board Meeting Minutes
        • November 15 - 16, 2008, Board Meeting Minutes
        • October 1, 2008, Board Meeting Minutes
      • 2009 ACB Board Minutes
        • December 15, 2009, Board Meeting Minutes
        • February 20, 2009, Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 11, 2009, Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 4, 2009, Board Meeting Minutes
        • May 21, 2009, Board Meeting Minutes
        • September 12 - 13, 2009, Board Meeting Minutes
      • 2010 ACB Board Minutes
        • December 13,2010 Teleconference Meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Council of the Blind
        • February 19, 2010, Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 10, 2010, Pre-convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • July 17, 2010, Post Convention Board Meeting Minutes
        • June 9, 2010, Board Meeting Minutes
        • November 6, 2010, Board Meeting Minutes
        • September 22, 2010, Board Meeting Minutes
      • 2011 ACB Board Minutes
        • December 14, 2011 Meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Council of the Blind
        • January 11, 2011 Teleconference Meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Council of the Blind
        • Mid Year Meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Council of the Blind
        • October 1, 2011 Meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Council of the Blind
        • Post Convention Meeting of the American Council of the Blind Board of Directors
        • Pre convention Board of Directors Meeting, American Council of the Blind
        • Teleconference Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors, May 5th 2011
      • 2012 Meeting Minutes
        • December 12, 2012 Teleconference Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors
        • February 23-24, 2012 Mid Year Board Of Directors Meeting
        • July 14, 2012 Board of Directors Meeting of the American Council of the Blind
        • July 7, 2012 Pre-Convention Meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Council of the Blind
        • June 7, 2012 Teleconference Meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Council of the Blind
        • May 9, 2012 Teleconference Meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Council of the Blind
        • September 15, 2012 ACB Board of Directors Meeting Minutes
      • 2013 Meeting Minutes
        • August 21, 2013 Teleconference Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors
        • December 17, 2013 Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors Minutes
        • February 22, 2013 Mid Year ACB Board of Directors Meeting
        • January 3, 2013 Teleconference Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors
        • July 5, 2013 Pre-Convention Board of Directors Meeting
        • Minutes of the American Council of the Blind 2013 Post Convention Board of Directors Meeting
        • October 30, 2013 Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors Minutes
        • September 28, 2013 Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors Minutes
      • 2014 ACB Board of Directors Meeting Minutes
        • December 8th and 9th, 2014 ACB Board of Directors Meeting Minutes
        • February 21, 2014 ACB Board of Directors Meeting Minutes
        • January 30, 2014 Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors Minutes
        • July 12, 2014 Pre-Convention ACB Board of Directors Meeting Minutes
        • July 19, 2014 Post-Convention ACB Board of Directors Meeting Minutes
        • June 9, 2014 ACB Board of Directors Meeting Minutes
        • November 13, 2014 ACB Board of Directors Meeting Minutes
        • October 17 and 18, 2014 ACB Board of Directors Meeting Minutes
      • 2015 ACB Board of Directors Minutes
        • December 3 and 10, 2015 Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors
        • February 21, 2015, Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors
        • July 4, 2015 Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors
        • October 30-31, 2015 Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors
      • 2016 ACB Board of Directors Minutes
        • AMERICAN COUNCIL OF THE BLIND BOARD OF DIRECTORS MEETING MINUTES
        • AMERICAN COUNCIL OF THE BLIND BOARD OF DIRECTORS MEETING MINUTES
        • American Council of the Blind Board of Directors Meeting Minutes
        • February 27, 2016 Meeting of the ACB Board of Directors
      • 2017 ACB Board of Directors Minutes
        • Meeting Minutes Aug 22, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes Feb 25, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes Jun 30, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes Nov 27, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes Oct 27, 2017
      • 2018 ACB Board of Directors Minutes
        • American Council of the Blind Board of Directors Meeting Minutes
        • Board of Directors Meeting Minutes June 29, 2018
        • Board of Directors Minutes Nov. 27-Dec. 3, 2018
        • Board of Directors Minutes Oct. 5-6, 2018
      • 2019 ACB Board of Directors Minutes
        • Meeting Minutes August 22, 2019
        • Meeting Minutes Feb. 23, 2019
        • Meeting Minutes July 5, 2019
        • Meeting Minutes Nov 11 and 18, 2019
        • Meeting Minutes: Oct. 18 and 19, 2019
      • 2020 ACB Board of Directors Minutes
        • Meeting Minutes Apr 23, 2020
        • Meeting Minutes Feb 22, 2020
        • Meeting Minutes Jan 23, 2020
        • Meeting Minutes Mar 30, 2020
      • 2021 ACB Board of Directors Minutes
      • 2022 ACB Board of Directors Minutes
      • John McCann for ACB Board of Directors
    • Board of Publications
      • 2009 Board of Publications Minutes
        • April 6, 2009, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • February 20, 2009, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • January 5, 2009, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • July 5, 2009, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • March 2, 2009, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • November 2, 2009, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • September 14, 2009, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • 2010 Board of Publications Minutes
        • April 5, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • August 2, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • December 6, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • February 19, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • January 4, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • July 11, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • June 7, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • March 1, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • May 3, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • November 1, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • October 4, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • September 6, 2010, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • 2011 Board of Publications Minutes
        • April 4, 2011, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • August 1, 2011, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • December 5, 2011, Board of Publications Meeting Minutes October 3, 2011
        • February 25, 2011, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • February 7, 2011, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • January 3, 2011, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • July 10, 2011, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • June 6, 2011, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • May 2, 2011, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • October 3, 2011, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
        • September 5, 2011, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • 2012 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • April 2, 2012 BOARD OF PUBLICATIONS MEETING MINUTES
        • August 6, 2012 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • December 10, 2012 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • February 24, 2012 BOARD OF PUBLICATIONS MEETING MINUTES
        • February 6, 2012 BOARD OF PUBLICATIONS MEETING MINUTES
        • January 2, 2012 BOARD OF PUBLICATIONS MEETING MINUTES
        • July 8, 2012 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • May 7, 2012 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
      • 2013 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • April 1, 2013 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • August 13, 2013 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • December 2, 2013 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • February 22, 2013 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • February 4, 2013 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • January 7, 2013 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • May 6, 2013 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • November 4, 2013 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • October 7, 2013 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • September 9, 2013 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
      • 2014 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • April 7, 2014 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • August 4, 2014 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • December 1, 2014 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • February 21, 2014 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • January 6, 2014 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • July 13, 2014 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • June 2, 2014 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • November 3, 2014 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • October 6, 2014 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • September 8, 2014 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
      • 2015 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • April 6, 2015 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • February 2, 2015 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • July 5, 2015 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • June 1, 2015 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • March 2, 2015 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • May 4, 2015 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • November 9, 2015 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
      • 2016 BOP Meeting Minutes
        • BOP Minutes-Apr. 4, 2016
        • BOP Minutes-Aug. 2, 2016
        • BOP Minutes-Dec. 6, 2016
        • BOP Minutes-Feb. 8, 2016
        • BOP Minutes-Jan. 4, 2016
        • BOP Minutes-July 2016
        • BOP Minutes-Jun. 6, 2016
        • BOP Minutes-Mar. 7, 2016
        • BOP Minutes-May 2, 2016
        • BOP Minutes-Nov. 1, 2016
        • BOP Minutes-Oct. 4, 2016
        • Board of Publications Meeting Minutes for September 6, 2016
      • 2017 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • Meeting Minutes for April 4, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes for August 1, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes for December 5, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes for February 7, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes for January 3, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes for July 1, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes for June 6, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes for March 7, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes for November 7, 2017
        • Meeting Minutes for September 5, 2017
      • 2018 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • BOP Minutes - Jun. 30, 2018
        • BOP Minutes - Apr. 3, 2018
        • BOP Minutes - Aug. 7, 2018
        • BOP Minutes - Jan. 9, 2018
        • BOP Minutes - Jun. 5, 2018
        • BOP Minutes - Mar. 7, 2018
        • BOP Minutes - May 1, 2018
        • BOP Minutes - Nov. 13, 2018
        • BOP Minutes - Oct. 9, 2018
        • BOP Minutes - Sept. 4, 2018
      • 2019 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • BOP Minutes - Apr. 2, 2019
        • BOP Minutes - Aug. 13, 2019
        • BOP Minutes - Dec. 3, 2019
        • BOP Minutes - Feb. 5, 2019
        • BOP Minutes - Jan. 8, 2019
        • BOP Minutes - Jul. 6, 2019
        • BOP Minutes - Jun. 4, 2019
        • BOP Minutes - Mar. 12, 2019
        • BOP Minutes - May 7, 2019
        • BOP Minutes - Nov. 5, 2019
        • BOP Minutes - Oct. 1, 2019
        • BOP Minutes - Sept. 3, 2019
      • 2020 Board of Publications Meeting Minutes
        • BOP Minutes - Feb 4, 2020
        • BOP Minutes - Apr 7, 2020
        • BOP Minutes - Aug. 4, 2020
        • BOP Minutes - Jan. 7, 2020
        • BOP Minutes - Jun. 2, 2020
        • BOP Minutes - Mar 3, 2020
        • BOP Minutes - May 5, 2020
        • BOP Minutes - Nov 10, 2020
        • BOP Minutes - Oct. 6, 2020
        • BOP Minutes - Sept. 1, 2020
      • 2021 BOP Meeting Minutes
        • BOP Minutes - Apr 6, 2021
        • BOP Minutes - Aug 3, 2021
        • BOP Minutes - Feb 2, 2021
        • BOP Minutes - Jan 5, 2021
        • BOP Minutes - Jun 1, 2021
        • BOP Minutes - Mar 2, 2021
        • BOP Minutes - May 4, 2021
        • BOP Minutes - Nov. 2, 2021
        • BOP Minutes - Oct 12, 2021
        • BOP Minutes - Sept 7, 2021
      • 2022 BOP Meeting Minutes
        • BOP Minutes Feb 1, 2022
        • BOP Minutes - Apr 5, 2022
        • BOP Minutes - Aug 2, 2022
        • BOP Minutes - Jun 7, 2022
        • BOP Minutes - Mar 1, 2022
        • BOP Minutes - May 3, 2022
        • BOP Minutes - Nov 1, 2022
        • BOP Minutes - Nov 1, 2022
        • BOP Minutes - Oct 4, 2022
        • BOP Minutes - Sept. 6, 2022
        • Bop Minutes - Jan 4, 2022
      • April 14, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • August 4, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • BOP Editorial Policy Manual, 2015
      • Board of Publications Hosts Internet Candidates' Page
      • Board of Publications Minutes
      • Charles Hodge for ACB Board of Publications
      • December 1, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of December 1, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • January 30, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • July 6, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • June 2, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • March 3, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • Marcia Dresser for ACB Board of Publications
      • May 5, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • November 3, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • October 6, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • September 1, 2008, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Publications
      • Thomas Mitchell for ACB Board of Publications
    • Committees & Task Forces
      • ACB Radio Management Committee
      • ACB Store-Mini Mall Committee
      • Advocacy Services Committee
      • Audio Description Project (ADP) Committee
      • Audio Description Project Task Force
      • Awards Committee
      • Braille Authority of North America
      • Constitution and Bylaws Committee
      • Convention Coordinating Committee
      • Convention Program Committee
      • Credentials Committee
      • Employment Issues Committee
      • Environmental Access Committee
      • Fitness Equipment Equity Task Force
      • Information Access Committee
      • International Relations Committee
      • Investment Committee
      • Leadership Institute Training Committee
      • McDaniel Fund Committee
        • Recipients of the Durward K. McDaniel First Timer and J.P. Morgan Chase Leadership Fellow Awards Speak Out
      • Membership Committee
      • Monthly Monetary Support Committee
      • Multicultural Affairs Committee
      • National Library Service
      • Next Generation Committee
      • Nominating Committee
      • Other Representatives
      • PR Committee downloads
      • Rehabilitation Issues Task Force
      • Resolutions Committee
      • Resource Development Committee
      • Scholarship Grant Committee
      • Sight and Sound Impaired Committee
      • Special Education/Schools for the Blind Task Force
      • Transportation Committee
      • Voting Task Force
      • Women's Concerns Committee
      • World Blind Union Delegates
    • History
    • ACB Resolutions
      • 2009 Resolutions
      • 2010 Resolutions
      • 2011 Resolutions
      • 2012 Resolutions
      • 2013 Resolutions
      • 2014 Resolutions
      • 2015 Resolutions
      • 2016 Resolutions
      • 2017 Resolutions
      • 2018 Resolutions
      • 2019 Resolutions
      • 2020 Resolutions
      • 2021 Resolutions
      • 2022 Resolutions
      • Index
      • Resolution on Full Funding of Vocational Rehabilitation Services for the Blind and Visually Impaired
    • Affiliates
      • Special Interest Affiliates
        • ACB Diabetics in Action
        • ACB Families
        • ACB Government Employees
        • ACB Human Service Professionals
        • ACB Next Generation
        • ACB Radio Amateurs
        • ACB Students
        • Alliance on Aging and Vision Loss
        • American Association of Blind Teachers
        • American Association of Visually Impaired Attorneys
        • American Council of Blind Lions
        • Blind Information Technology Specialists
        • Blind LGBT Pride International
        • Braille Revival League
        • Council of Citizens with Low Vision International
        • Friends In Art of ACB, Inc.
        • Guide Dog Users, Inc.
        • Independent Visually Impaired Enterprisers
        • Library Users of America
        • Randolph-Sheppard Vendors of America
        • Visually Impaired Veterans of America
    • Frequently Asked Questions
  • Events
  • Programs & Services
    • ACB Community Events
      • Recurring Events
      • Weekly Events
    • Scholarships
    • Audio Description Project
    • Advocacy & Governmental Affairs
      • Advocacy
    • ACB Media
    • Convention
    • Membership
  • Resources
    • Jobs
    • ACB Archives
    • Blind / Low Vision Resources
      • Scholarship Program
      • ACB Leadership List Guidelines
      • ACB-Chat List Rules
      • ADA Signage
      • AFB: Be a Better Champion for Specialized Services
      • Banks with Talking ATM Machines
      • Best Practices and Guidelines for Large Print Documents used by the Low Vision Community authored by the Council of Citizens with Low Vision International An Affiliate of the American Council of the Blind Arlington, VA
      • Best Practices for Large Print Documents
      • Braille Resources
        • Braille Business Cards
        • Braille Instruction
        • Braille Paper
        • Braille Writer Repair Services
        • Description and History of Braille
        • Producers of Braille Documents
      • Diabetic Resources for the Blind and Visually Impaired
      • Filing a Video Description Complaint with the FCC
      • General Resources
      • Guide Dog Resources
      • Homes for the Blind
      • Low Vision Resources
      • Medical Information Resources
      • Microsoft Office Accessibility Resources
      • Music Resources
      • Outreach RE Requesting Alternate Formats From SSA
      • Religious Resources
      • Resources for Older Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired
      • Resources for Parents and Teachers of Blind and Visually Impaired Children
      • Resources for Persons with Low Vision
      • Section 904
      • Sports, Recreational and Leisure Resources
      • Where Taxpayers With Disabilities Can Find Online Help from the IRS
      • White Cane Laws for States
    • Affiliate Resources
      • Encouraging Affiliates with Techniques to Reach More Members
      • Exploring How Affiliates Can Reach New Members
      • Fundraising for ACB Activities Including the National Convention
      • Gaining and Maintaining Membership
      • Growing a Great Convention
      • How Can We Complete Our Business During Meetings More Efficiently?
      • How Can We Reactivate Past Members and “Wow” Our Current Members to Retain Them?
      • How to Find Blindness Related Resources and Sharing Them
      • Ideas for Affiliates and Chapters
      • Ideas to Interest Students
      • Involving Youth in ACB
      • Leadership Materials
        • Board Member's Manual for State and Special Interest Affiliates
        • Creating a Media Kit for Your ACB Affiliate or Chapter
        • Simplified Parliamentary Procedure
        • The PSA Handbook for ACB Affiliates and Chapters
        • The Press Release Handbook for ACB Affiliates and Chapters
      • Membership Incentives
      • Networking, Communication and Contact
      • Officer’s and Board Member's Manual for State and Special Interest Affiliates
      • President's Manual for State and Special Interest Affiliates
      • Reaching Blind and Visually Impaired Seniors
      • Reaching Out to Your Community to Educate and Inform People About Blindness
      • Secretary's Manual for State and Special Interest Affiliates
      • Strategies for Enhancing Membership
      • Strategies for Member Renewal and Reactivation
      • Tips for Successful Membership Recruitment and Retention
      • Tips to Retain Members
      • Treasurer's Manual for State and Special Interest Affiliates
      • Vice President's Manual for State and Special Interest Affiliates
    • Peer Support
    • Handbooks / Manuals
      • Are You a Senior Citizen Struggling with Vision Loss?
      • Are You the Parents of A Blind Child?
      • Guide to Successful College Experience
      • Pedestrian Safety
      • Pedestrian Safety Handbook
        • "Modern" Signalized Intersections
        • APS
        • Acknowledgements
        • Advocacy
        • Afterword
        • Appendix A: Letter
        • Appendix B: Template
        • Appendix C: Case Studies
        • Appendix D: Glossary
        • Crossing Where No Traffic Control
        • Drivers’ Yielding Behavior
        • Finding Crosswalk: Part 1
        • Finding Crosswalk: Part 2
        • Finding the Crosswalk
        • Mitch's Message
        • Rights-of-Way Regulations
      • Rehabilitation Issues Task Force Revised Rehabilitation White Paper
      • Whitepaper On Rehabilitation and Training
    • Products & Services
      • Accessible Cards and Gifts
      • Computer Products, Publications, Training, and Information Sources
      • Funding Assistive Technology Resources
      • Magnifying Aids - Low Vision Center
      • Technology, Software, Related Resources
      • Travel Resources
      • Useful Products for Blind and Visually Impaired Persons
    • Professional Employment Associations
  • Publications & Media
    • Live Events
    • News
    • Braille Forum
      • 1997 Issues
        • BF Apr 1997
        • BF Aug 1997
        • BF Dec 1997
        • BF Feb 1997
        • BF Jan 1997
        • BF Jul 1997
        • BF Jun 1997
        • BF Mar 1997
        • BF May 1997
        • BF Nov 1997
        • BF Oct 1997
        • BF Sept 1997
      • 1998 Issues
        • BF Apr 1998
        • BF Aug 1998
        • BF Dec 1998
        • BF Feb 1998
        • BF Jan 1998
        • BF Jul 1998
        • BF Jun 1998
        • BF Mar 1998
        • BF May 1998
        • BF Nov 1998
        • BF Oct1998
        • BF Sept 1998
      • 1999 Issues
        • BF Apr 1999
        • BF Aug 1999
        • BF Dec 1999
        • BF Feb 1999
        • BF Jan 1999
        • BF Jul 1999
        • BF Jun 1999
        • BF Mar 1999
        • BF May 1999
        • BF Nov1999
        • BF Oct 1999
        • BF Sept 1999
      • 2000 Issues
        • BF Apr 2000
        • BF Aug 2000
        • BF Convention 2000
        • BF Dec 2000
        • BF Feb 2000
        • BF Jan 2000
        • BF Jul 2000
        • BF Jun 2000
        • BF Mar 2000
        • BF May 2000
        • BF Nov 2000
        • BF Oct 2000
        • BF Sept 2000
      • 2001 Issues
        • BF Apr 2001
        • BF Aug 2001
        • BF Dec 2001
        • BF Feb 2001
        • BF Jan 2001
        • BF Jul 2001
        • BF Jun 2001
        • BF Mar 2001
        • BF May 2001
        • BF Nov 2001
        • BF Oct 2001
        • BF Sept 2001
      • 2002 Issues
        • BF April 2002
        • BF Feb 2002
        • BF Jan 2002
        • BF Jul-Aug 2002
        • BF Jun 2002
        • BF Mar 2002
        • BF May 2002
        • BF Nov 2002
        • BF Oct 2002
        • BF Sept 2002
      • 2003 Issues
        • BF Apr 2003
        • BF Feb 2003
        • BF July-Aug 2003
        • BF Jun 2003
        • BF Mar 2003
        • BF May 2003
        • BF Nov 2003
        • BF Oct 2003
        • BF Sept 2003
        • BF Winter 2003
      • 2004 Issues
        • BF Apr-May 2004
        • BF Feb 2004
        • BF Jul-Aug 2004
        • BF Jun 2004
        • BF Mar 2004
        • BF Nov 2004
        • BF Sep-Oct 2004
        • BF Winter 2004
      • 2005 Issues
        • BF Apr 2005
        • BF Feb 2005
        • BF Jul-Aug 2005
        • BF Jun 2005
        • BF Mar 2005
        • BF May 2005
        • BF Oct 2005
        • BF Sept 2005
        • BF Winter 2005
        • BF Winter 2006
          • 2006 Convention Preview
          • ACB Scholarships Available to Blind Students
          • Affiliate News
          • Fall Board Meeting Summary
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Hurricane Katrina Check-In
          • IRIS Network
          • John Di Francesco
          • Legislative Seminar
          • Letters to the Editor
          • MMS "Two-for-One" Program
          • Membership Focus
          • Notes on a New Year
          • President's Message
          • Who Do You Admire?
          • Who Is Eligible for Drug Plan Costs?
      • 2006 Issues
        • BF April 2006
        • BF Feb 2006
        • BF Jul-Aug 2006
        • BF Jun 2006
        • BF Mar 2006
        • BF May 2006
        • BF Nov 2006
        • BF Oct 2006
        • BF Sept 2006
      • 2007 Issues
        • BF Apr 2007
        • BF Dec 2007
        • BF Feb 2007
        • BF Jul-Aug 2007
        • BF Jun 2007
        • BF Mar 2007
        • BF May 2007
        • BF Nov 2007
        • BF Oct 2007
        • BF Sept 2007
        • BF Winter 2007
      • 2008 Issues
        • BF Apr 2008
        • BF Aug 2008
        • BF Dec 2008
        • BF Feb 2008
        • BF Jan 2008
        • BF Jul 2008
        • BF Jun 2008
        • BF Mar 2008
        • BF May 2008
        • BF Nov 2008
        • BF Oct 2008
        • BF Sept 2008
      • 2009 Issues
        • BF Apr 2009
        • BF Aug 2009
        • BF Dec 2009
          • Class Action ACB v. SSA
          • President's Message
        • BF Feb 2009
        • BF Jan 2009
        • BF Jul 2009
        • BF Jun 2009
        • BF Mar 2009
        • BF May 2009
        • BF Nov 2009
        • BF Oct 2009
        • BF Sept 2009
      • 2010 Issues
        • BF Apr 2010
        • BF Aug 2010
        • BF Dec 2010
        • BF Feb 2010
          • AFFILIATE NEWS
          • BOARD OF PUBLICATIONS AWARDS: THIS YEAR IT COULD BE YOU!
          • HERE AND THERE Edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • PASSINGS
          • SECOND ANNUAL ACB WALK by Dan Dillon
          • SPOTLIGHT YOUR AFFILIATE WITH A BOP AWARD!
          • THE MMS PROGRAM MAKES IT EASIER FOR YOU TO HELP ACB by Dena Wilson
          • THE SUNNY SOUTHWEST: ACB CONFERENCE AND CONVENTION 2010 by Carla Ruschival
        • BF Jan 2010
          • HIGH TECH SWAP SHOP
          • Here and There
        • BF Jul 2010
        • BF Jun 2010
        • BF Mar 2010
        • BF May 2010
        • BF Nov 2010
        • BF Oct 2010
        • BF Sept 2010
      • 2011 Issues
        • BF Dec 2011
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
          • Here and There, edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • In Memoriam: Lola Siren
        • The Braille Forum, April 2011
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The Braille Forum, February 2011
          • AFFILIATE NEWS
          • HERE AND THERE edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • HIGH TECH SWAP SHOP
          • YOU CAN SHOP ANYTIME AT THE ACB STORE by Carla Ruschival
        • The Braille Forum, July-August 2011
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The Braille Forum, June 2011
          • Affiliate News: Convention Sneak Preview
        • The Braille Forum, March 2011
          • AFFILIATE NEWS
          • HERE AND THERE edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • HIGH TECH SWAP SHOP
        • The Braille Forum, May 2011
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Library Users of America to Host Book Flea Market, by Peggy R. Garrett
        • The Braille Forum, October-November 2011
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The Braille Forum, September 2011
          • Affiliate News
        • The Braille Forum, january 2011
          • AFFILIATE NEWS
          • HERE AND THERE edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • HIGH TECH SWAP SHOP
      • 2012 Issues
        • Affiliate News
        • Here and There edited by Sue Lichtenfels
        • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The Braille Forum, April 2012
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The Braille Forum, December 2012
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The Braille Forum, February 2012
          • AFFILIATE NEWS
          • HERE AND THERE edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • HIGH TECH SWAP SHOP
        • The Braille Forum, January 2012
          • HERE AND THERE edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • HIGH TECH SWAP SHOP
        • The Braille Forum, July-August 2012
          • HERE AND THERE edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • HIGH TECH SWAP SHOP
        • The Braille Forum, June 2012
          • AFFILIATE NEWS
          • BOP with 2012 Candidate's Page
          • HERE AND THERE edited by Sue Lichtenfels
          • HIGH TECH SWAP SHOP
        • The Braille Forum, March 2012
          • Affiliate News
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The Braille Forum, May 2012
        • The Braille Forum, October-November 2012
          • AFFILIATE NEWS
          • HERE AND THERE
          • HIGH TECH SWAP SHOP
        • The Braille Forum, September 2012
          • AFFILIATE NEWS
          • HERE AND THERE
          • HIGH TECH SWAP SHOP
      • 2013 Issues
        • ACB Braille Forum, February 2013
          • Affiliate News
          • An Update from GDUI
          • DKM First-Timer Program: A Tribute to an ACB Pioneer by Allen J. Casey
          • Here and There by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • ACB Braille Forum, June 2013
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • ACB Braille Forum, March 2013
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • ACB Braille Forum, May 2013
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • ACB Braille Forum, September 2013
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • ACB E-Forum, April 2013
          • Affiliate and Committee News
          • Here and There by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • ACB E-Forum, August 2013
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • ACB E-Forum, July 2013
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Braille Forum Nov 2013
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • E-Forum Dec 2013
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The ACB E-Forum, October 2013
          • Affiliate and Committee News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The Braille Forum, January 2013
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
      • 2014 Issues
        • ACB E-Forum, February 2014
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Affiliate News
        • BF January 2014
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Shopping for Health Care: Comparing Hospitals Can Help Consumers Make Good Decisions by Ron Pollack
        • Braille Forum, July 2014
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Braille Forum, March 2014
          • ACB Braille Forum, March 2014 downloads
          • ACB Leadership Institute 2014
          • ACB's Legislative Priorities for 2014, by Melanie Brunson
          • Affiliate News
          • Board of Publications Awards Your Excellence in 2014
          • Come to Vegas and Hit the Jackpot!
          • Community Outreach Challenge, by Tristen Breitenfeldt
          • Conducting Business with Social Security: What You Should Know and How You Can Help, by Len Burns
          • DKM First-Timer Selection Nears
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • How to Get the Most Out of Rehab, Part III: Available Services, by Doug Powell
          • In Memoriam: Buddy Spivey, Dec. 31, 1941-Jan. 9, 2014
          • Las Vegas: Deal Us In!, by Janet Dickelman
          • Membership Focus: Creative Ways to Meet, Especially in Rural Areas, compiled by Ardis Bazyn
          • President's Message: Be Sure You Are Protected!, by Kim Charlson
          • Summary of the Fall 2013 ACB Board Meeting, by Denise Colley
        • Braille Forum, Sept 2014
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
        • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
        • High Tech Swap Shop
        • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Snowflakes and Birthday Cake: It’s Holiday Auction Time, by Carla Ruschival
        • The ACB Braille Forum, May 2014
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The ACB Braille Forum, November 2014
        • The ACB Braille Forum, November 2014 downloads
        • The ACB E-Forum, April 2014
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The ACB E-Forum, August 2014
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Your Options for Medicare Supplemental Coverage by Ron Pollack
        • The ACB E-Forum, December 2014
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The ACB E-Forum, June 2014
        • The ACB E-Forum, October 2014
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
      • 2015 Issues
        • Braille Forum January 2015
          • Accessing the ACB Forum and E-Forum: Let Me Count the Ways, by Judy Wilkinson
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Braille Forum July 2015
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Braille Forum March 2015
          • A Telecommuting Job Could Be Just What You Are Looking For, by Dr. Ronald E. Milliman
          • ACB’s Stars Will Shine Bright in Dallas, by Janet Dickelman
          • Acknowledgement
          • Affiliate News
          • Best Audio Holiday Season Ever, by Susan Glass
          • Board of Publications Again Awards Your Excellence in Media and Writing in 2015
          • Call for Nominees for 2015 ACB Awards!, by Chelle Hart & Chip Hailey
          • Come to the Lone Star Loot Auction!
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • Last Call: The DKM Train Is Leaving the Station, by Allen Casey
          • Let the Stars Shine Bright on the ACB Brenda Dillon Memorial Walk, by Donna Brown
          • President’s Message: More on Accessible Prescription Labels, by Kim Charlson
          • Tax Tips from the IRS, by Melanie Brunson
          • The Importance of Grassroots, by Kathy Brockman
        • Braille Forum May 2015
          • Affiliate News
          • Convention Week Sneak Preview, by Janet Dickelman
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Braille Forum November 2015
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Braille Forum September 2015
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • E-Forum April 2015
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • E-Forum August 2015
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • E-Forum December 2015
          • Affiliate and Committee News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • E-Forum June 2015
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • E-Forum October 2015
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
        • E-Forum, February 2015
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
      • 2016 Issues
        • BF January 2016
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • BF July 2016
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • BF March 2016
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • BF May 2016
          • Affiliate and Committee News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • BF November 2016
          • Affiliate and Committee News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • BF September 2016
          • Affiliate News
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • EF April 2016
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • EF August 2016
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • EF December 2016
          • ACB Fall Board Meeting Report, by Ron Brooks
          • Affiliate and Committee News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • EF February 2016
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • EF June 2016
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • EF October 2016
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There, edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
      • 2017 Issues
        • Affiliate News
        • Braille Forum January 2017
          • Affiliate News
            • Affiliate News
          • Here and There edited by Sharon Strzalkowski
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Braille Forum March 2017
          • ACB Commends Access Board on 508 Refresh
          • Affiliate News
          • Awards Committee Seeks Nominees for 2017 ACB Awards
          • Celebrate the Life and Legacy of Durward K. McDaniel Support the DKM FirstTimer Program
          • Easy Fund Raiser for Your Affiliate
          • Helpful Hints for Attending the Convention
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Holiday Auction Thank Yous
          • Ida Schwerzel A Century of Memories Part 2
          • In Memoriam: Otis H. Stephens Jr. Sept. 20, 1936-Dec. 2, 2016
          • Presidents Message Planning for the Future
          • Readers Remembrances of Otis Stephens
          • Spotlight On ACB Students
        • Braille Forum September 2017
        • December 2017
          • Here and There
        • E-Forum June 2017
          • Affiliate and Committee News
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Here and There
        • Here and There
        • High Tech Swap Shop
        • High Tech Swap Shop
        • November 2017
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • October 2017
        • The ACB Braille Forum July 2017
        • The ACB Braille Forum May 2017
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The ACB E-Forum April 2017
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The ACB E-Forum August 2017
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • The ACB E-Forum February 2017
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
      • 2018 Issues
        • ACB Braille Forum Feb 2018
          • ACB E-Forum February 2018 Downloads
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
        • ACB Braille Forum Jan 2018
          • Affiliate News
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • ACB Braille Forum July 2018
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Passings
        • ACB Braille Forum March 2018
          • Affiliate News
        • ACB Braille Forum May 2018
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
        • ACB Braille Forum Nov 2018
        • ACB Braille Forum Sept 2018
        • ACB E-Forum April 2018
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • ACB E-Forum Aug 2018
          • Here and There
        • ACB E-Forum Dec 2018
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Hot Toys for Holiday Gift-Giving
        • ACB E-Forum June 2018
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
        • ACB E-Forum Oct 2018
      • 2019 Issues
        • ACB E-Forum Aug 2019
        • ACB E-Forum Feb 2019
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • ACB E-Forum Jun 2019
        • Braille Forum Jan 2019
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Braille Forum July 2019
        • Braille Forum Mar 2019
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • Braille Forum May 2019
          • President’s Message
        • Braille Forum Nov-2019
        • Braille Forum Sept 2019
        • E-Forum Apr 2019
          • High Tech Swap Shop
        • E-Forum Dec 2019
        • E-Forum Oct 2019
          • Rochester Convention Celebrated
      • 2020 Issues
        • BF Jan 2020
          • President’s Message
        • BF July 2020
          • Affiliate and Committee News
          • Belonging in ACB
          • Commentary
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • How to Access Virtual Convention
          • In Memoriam: Camille Caffarelli
          • Mouse Assisting Inclusive Technology
          • President’s Message: First Virtual Convention
          • Summary of Board of Dir. Meeting, April 23, 2020
          • The ADA at 30
          • The Only Moment
          • Tuesday Topics
        • BF Mar 2020
        • BF May 2020
          • President’s Message
        • BF Nov 2020
          • 2020 Resolutions Summary
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
          • Honesty
          • In Memoriam: Charlie Crawford
          • Include in Affiliate
          • Lies
          • MMS Future
          • Notice
          • Plans for 2021
          • President’s Message
          • Readers Remember
          • Revision to DKM
        • BF Sept 2020
          • 2020 Awards Winners
          • ACB 2020 Convention Thank-Yous
          • ACB 2020 Virtual Convention: That’s a Wrap!
          • ACB Membership Seminar
          • Here and There
          • Holiday Auction
          • In Memoriam: Berl Lynn Colley
          • Letter to the Editor
          • President’s Message: Finally Baseball!
          • Ski for Light 2021
          • Thank You
          • To Mobility and Beyond
          • Walked Virtual Path to Future
        • EF Apr 2020
        • EF Aug 2020
          • Affiliate and Committee News
          • Beginning Again
          • Book Review
          • COVID-19 Will Be Beat
          • COVID-19 and Blindness
          • Cavemen
          • Diaphragmatic Breathing
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Kindness of Neighbors
          • Pick a Peck
          • President’s Message
          • Virus or Victim
          • ‘End of Oct.’ Review
        • EF Dec 2020
          • Affiliate News
          • Apply to DKM First-Timers Award
          • BADIE
          • Board Meetings Summary
          • Celebrating CVAA
          • Chaplain’s Corner
          • Flexibility
          • Going Virtual Again
          • Here and There
          • Mini Mall Holiday
          • President’s Message
          • Qualifying for SSD
          • Retaining Members
          • Safe Cooking
          • Senator Markey Celebrates
        • EF Feb 2020
        • EF June 2020
          • ACB Easy Chair Auction
          • ACB –Path to Future
          • Affiliate and Committee News
          • Backyard Wedding
          • Book Review
          • Continuing Education
          • Conventions
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • MMS Going Virtual!
          • Memories of Lynn Hedl
          • Mini Mall Headlines
          • Passings
          • Performing Marriage Ceremonies
          • President’s Message
          • Walking up a Storm
          • Ways to Listen
          • Wine and Song
          • Wine and Song
        • EF Oct 2020
          • ADA Turns 30
          • ADA at Thirty
          • Affiliate News
          • DARE2TRI
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Involving Special-Interest Affiliates
          • Jeanne Sanders
          • Mini Mall Mega News
          • Passings
          • Perseverance in Martial Arts
          • Pre-Convention Board Meeting
          • President’s Message
          • Swimming Blind & Free
          • Triathlon Dare2tri
          • Vision Loss, Therapy, Weightlifting
      • 2021 Issues
        • BF Jan 2021
          • Apply to 2021 ACB/JPMorgan Chase Leadership Fellow
          • BOP to Award Excellence
          • Become a 2021 Recipient of DKM Award
          • Call for 2021 ACB Awards Nominees
          • Convention Dates
          • Help Revive Braille!
          • Here and There
          • In Memoriam: Larry Turnbull
          • Joys of Learning Braille
          • Mother Was a Braille Transcriber
          • Passings
          • President’s Message
          • That Stupid School!
        • BF Jul 2021
          • Accessing the Virtual Convention
          • Beyond
          • Continuing Ed
          • Don’t Forget MMS
          • Here and There
          • It’s Not Too Late
          • Learning
          • Let’s Go Fishing!
          • Meeting Summary
          • Mini Mall Minute
          • President’s Message
        • BF Mar 2021
          • Angels Memorial Program
          • Continuing Ed in 2021
          • Expanding Recruiting
          • Guide Dog If Low Vision?
          • Guide Dog Magnified
          • Here and There
          • Low Vision Story Bites
          • President’s Message
          • Summary - Nov 2020 Board Mtg.
          • Two Big Announcements!
          • Welcome to CCLVI
        • BF May 2021
          • Affiliate - Committee News
          • Book Review
          • Continuing Ed
          • Diamond Jubilee Auction
          • Get Moving Together
          • Here and There
          • In Memoriam
          • Mini Mall Headlines
          • President’s Message
          • Registration Q&A
          • Start a Chapter
          • Verizon Media Announces
          • Victor Reader Tip
          • Voting at Convention
          • Welcome New Employees
          • Your Vote Counts
        • BF Nov 2021
          • A Visit
          • Affiliate News
          • Brief Overview
          • Button Box?
          • Fun Facts about Nebraska
          • Greatest Fears
          • Here and There
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Holiday Shopping at Mini Mall
          • Karaoke Helps
          • Passings
          • President’s Message
          • Vision Loss Thoughts
        • BF Sept 2021
          • 2021 Convention
          • Affiliate News
          • Audio Description Achievement Awards
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Isolation to Inspiration
          • President’s Message
          • This Year’s Award Winners
          • Wrapping Up
        • EF Apr 2021
          • 13th Annual ADP Awards
          • 2021 Talking Book Narrator
          • 421 for ‘21
          • A Place at Table
          • Affiliate News
          • Connected in New Mexico
          • Heart of a Legacy
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • In Memoriam: Doc Bradley
          • Learning and Leading
          • Man Made Difference 
          • New Members Portal
          • People of Color
          • President’s Message
          • Smoke Signal
          • What Color Is the Dream?
          • What is IDC?
        • EF Aug 2021
          • Affiliate News
          • Blindness in United Arab Emirates
          • Bosnia and Herzegovina
          • Describing Diversity
          • Erasmus
          • Eye on USA
          • Furry Lifesaver
          • Get Moving Together
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • India
          • Passings
          • President’s Message
          • World Turned Inside Out
        • EF Dec 2021
          • 2021 Resolutions
          • Board Meeting Summaries
          • Christmas Wishes
          • Convention 2022 Preview
          • Here and There
          • Looking
          • Mother of Fundraisers
          • Notice of Proposed Settlement
          • Passings
          • President’s Message
          • Team Up
          • The New Year
        • EF Feb 2021
          • 2020 Convention Info
          • About ADP Website
          • Apply to 2021 Recipient of DKM Award
          • Audio Description Commercials
          • Audio Description Project
          • Audio Description Snobbery
          • Audio Description What it Means
          • Charlie Crawford on Wall of Angels
          • God’s Audio Description
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • In Memoriam: James Megivern
          • Paradigm Shift
          • President’s Message
        • EF Jun 2021
          • Affiliate News
          • Continuing Ed News
          • Convention Preview
          • Enjoy the Perks
          • Feb Board Meeting
          • Get Exercise
          • Get Up Get Moving
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Massage
          • Never Give Up
          • President’s Message
          • Review of Spark
          • The New $20
          • The Room
        • EF Oct 2021
          • Accessing Transit Services
          • Affiliate News
          • Here and There
          • Here and There
          • Letter to Dept of Trans
          • Moving Forward
          • Nearly Roadkill
          • On to Omaha
          • President’s Message
          • Reach People
          • Summary July 2021 Board Meeting
          • What About Paratransit?
          • Why Restructure?
      • 2022 Issues
        • BF Jan 2022
          • 10-9-21 Board Mtg Summary
          • ACB Diabetics in Action
          • Announcing 2022 Tours
          • BOP Awards Excellence
          • Blind LGBT Welcomes You
          • Braille Link to Literacy
          • Call for Nominees
          • Call for Nominees
          • Come One, Come All
          • Guide Dog Users
          • Happy New Year
          • IVIE
          • Not Your Father’s …
          • President’s Message
          • Reach Higher
          • Salutes Award Winners
          • Where Impaired Thrive
        • BF Jul 2022
          • Accessing ACB Info
          • Blind student
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Learning Better Leader
          • Passings
          • Pregnant Nun
          • President’s Message
          • Public Transportation
          • Recipes
          • Thank You
          • Tips for Convention
          • Wild Figs
          • Writers reimagine roles
        • BF Mar 2022
          • Affiliate News
          • Board Makes Virtual
          • Boxes
          • Dance with Cancer
          • Gifts of Mentorship
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • In Memoriam: Bill Spoone
          • Learn Hours
          • MMS March Madness
          • Motherhood
          • Passings
          • President’s Message
          • Removal
          • Time to Plan
          • Walk Here
        • BF May 2022
          • Accessibility for Some
          • Affiliate News
          • Convention Registration
          • Extra, Extra
          • Fix Computer Problems
          • Here and There
          • High Tech Swap Shop
          • Initials Mean More
          • Kindness Taught Me
          • Notice of Proposed Settlement
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  5. Finding Crosswalk: Part 1

Finding the Crosswalk and Aligning to Cross: Part 1

Part 1: Typical Strategies and Cues

 

Janet Barlow, MS, COMS (Deceased)
Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist
Accessible Design for the Blind

Billie Louise (Beezy) Bentzen, Ph.D., COMS
Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist
Accessible Design for the Blind

Lois Thibault
Coordinator of Research (Retired)
U.S. Access Board

Originally posted 2012

Revised 2022

Author Note

Throughout this article, whenever possible, the authors have provided references to the most relevant supporting statutes, proposed statutes, research work, and other source material to assist the reader’s understanding of the information to be covered. The existing and proposed statute references cited in this article are from the: 2009 edition of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways (MUTCD), 2010 ADA Standards for Accessible Design (2010 Standards), and (Proposed) Public Rights-of-Way Accessibility Guidelines (Proposed PROWAG).  All references are current and accurate as of the posting of the two parts of this article and are intended solely as informal guidance.

The following words and phrases in this two-part article shall have the following meanings:

  1. Pedestrian(s). “A person on foot, in a wheelchair, on skates, or on a skateboard” (MUTCD Section 1A.13 paragraph 3). 
  2. Pedestrian(s) with a vision disability. A person with a decreased ability to see that causes difficulties with normal daily tasks including reading and mobility not fixable by usual means, such as glasses or medication.

Any questions concerning this article can be directed to: Billie Louise (Beezy) Bentzen, Ph.D., Director of Research, Accessible Design for the Blind, 3110 Judge Arend Ave., Fairbanks, AK 99709, telephone (978) 549-8393, or by email, [email protected].

 

Introduction

In the intervening 10 years since this article was originally posted, there have been numerous research studies performed contributing to the development of new orientation and mobility strategies and environmental modifications for assisting pedestrians with vision disabilities (PWVDs) in locating street crossings and aligning to cross. This article has been updated to reflect some of these advancements by being transformed into a two-part format comprised of original, revised, expanded, and new content.

Part 1 is an update of the original article’s description of cues and strategies used by PWVDs for finding the crosswalk and aligning to cross, including discussions of challenges associated with these tasks in the modern urban environment in which intersection geometry is continuing to evolve.  Some possible modifications that may help with each of these tasks are described. 

Additionally, this part will include a short section on how to advocate for modifications that have been proven effective in addressing street crossing challenges.  Also, a reference list is provided with the information necessary for the reader to locate and retrieve any source that is cited in the body of this part of the article.

Part 2 is a new section to the article which will provide descriptions of four modifications that recent research has shown may be very effective in helping with the following problems:

  • Finding crosswalks at non-corner crossings such as mid-block, channelized turn lanes, and roundabouts.
  • Aligning to cross where parallel traffic is absent, intermittent, or misleading.
  • Crossing straight at very wide signalized crossings, or where there is no or inconsistent traffic going parallel to the crossing direction travelled by the PWVD.
  • Crossing straight at very wide unsignalized crossings, or where there is no or inconsistent traffic going parallel to the crossing direction travelled by the PWVD.

This part concludes with its own reference list and a footnote.

 

Identifying the Sidewalk/Street Boundary

Recognizing the arrival at the street boundary involves the PWVD assessing a number of cues:

  • The end of a building line transitioning to the openness of an intersection.
  • Changes in wind direction.
  • The sounds of idling or moving perpendicular traffic, turning traffic, and idling or moving parallel traffic. 
  • A down-curb, curb ramp, or similar sloped transition in the sidewalk. Note: A curb ramp is defined as “A ramp that cuts through or is built up to the curb. Curb ramps can be perpendicular or parallel, or a combination of parallel and perpendicular ramps.”

(Proposed PROWAG R105.5 [curb ramp]).

  • Detectable warning surface (DWS) underfoot at the flush transition between the street and a curb ramp or sidewalk blended transition.

Notes:

  1. DWS is defined as “A standardized surface feature built in or applied to walking surfaces or other elements to warn of hazards on a circulation path.”
  2. DWS are intended to provide a tactile equivalent underfoot of the visible curb line.

(MUTCD Sections 3B.18 paragraph 18, 3I.06 paragraph 1; 2010 Standards Sections 106.5 [detectable warning] and 705; Proposed PROWAG R208, R305, R306.3.1).

  • The locator tone of an accessible pedestrian signal (APS), which is integrated into the pedestrian detector (pushbutton) housing, if an APS is installed.

Note: An APS is defined as “a device that communicates information about pedestrian signal timing in non-visual format such as audible tones, speech messages, and/or vibrating surfaces.”

(MUTCD Sections 1A.13 paragraph 3 [accessible pedestrian signal], 4E.09 paragraph 10, 4E.11 paragraphs 9,11,25, 4E.12 paragraphs 2-6, 4E.08 – 4E.13; Proposed PROWAG R209).

  • The presence of waiting pedestrians, or the whistle of a traffic officer or bell of a turning cyclist.

The PWVD may fail to detect the end of the pedestrian way (sidewalk) and the beginning of the vehicular way (street).  Then, the PWVD may recognize that they’ve inadvertently entered the street after detecting the transition between a downslope and the upslope following a gutter.

When the PWVD is expecting to find the street edge and does not, this may mean they may be in a location where the sidewalk has been extended at the corner, called a bulb-out or curb extension. A bulb-out extends the sidewalk into the parking lane to narrow the roadway and provide additional pedestrian space and visibility at key locations.  However, the pedestrian’s crossing begins further from the building line than usual.

Many cities want to shorten the crossing distance for pedestrians and increase their visibility to motorists and other pedestrians, as well as slow vehicular traffic, by installing bulb-outs. They either want to experiment with bulb-outs before inclusion into the community’s Neighborhood Traffic Management Program toolbox and having to spend the money to construct them or want to install a number of these traffic calming devices at low cost.

Often, traffic engineers will construct what are sometimes referred to as “quick-build” bulb-outs, which describes an approach to building infrastructure using low-cost, short-term materials.  In this case, they just paint a new “curb line” in the street and install a few bollards (which may be short, flexible posts) along that line.  The engineers may or may not do the following:

  • Install a DWS at each crossing location.
  • Remove the DWS at the bottom of the existing curb ramp that used to indicate the next step would be in the street. 

This is a fast, inexpensive change that can happen along a frequently traveled pedestrian route.  If it seems like pedestrians are waiting to cross out into the street, the PWVD should suspect the presence of a quick-build bulb-out and inquire.

If the PWVD can’t tell where the quick-build bulb-out ends and where to wait to cross, it is appropriate to request installation of a DWS.  At the same time, they might request the removal of the DWS that used to indicate the beginning of the street.

When the PWVD knows that they would have no idea where the quick-build bulb-out ends, except for where there is a DWS at the crosswalk, it is appropriate to request the installation of cane-detectable posts or barriers along the painted line that are close enough not to be passed through without making physical contact with them.  Research work is underway to determine the best method for constructing these quick-build bulb-outs to make them safer for PWVDs, and there are no published recommendations as of the date of this publication.

Curb ramps

Curb ramp slopes may be relatively steep, which can help in detecting the street edge.  The bottom or base of a curb ramp run (the slope that is parallel to the down or up direction of travel on a curb ramp) is required to fall within the crosswalk area (2010 Standards Section 406.5; Proposed PROWAG R207.1); however, there is no requirement that the curb ramp running slope be aligned with the direction of travel on the crosswalk. There are many different ways that curb ramps can be built to connect the sidewalk to the street at a crossing.  Understanding those possibilities may help the PWVD recognize the edge of the street better as they travel on a curb ramp.

The most common connection is a perpendicular curb ramp, in which a section of the sidewalk slopes down to the street. The edges of the curb ramp may be ‘returned’ with curbs on each side of the ramp or ‘flared’ with sides that slope back up to the sidewalk level. Returned curb edges on these ramps are usually found where there is a landscape strip between the curb and sidewalk, and flared sides are usual when the sidewalk is paved to the curb.  Perpendicular curb ramps need wide sidewalks to be usable — approximately 10 feet (3048 mm) where curbs are 6 inches (152.4 mm) in height. 

In older sidewalks, there may be only one curb ramp, at the apex of the corner; these are often called ‘diagonal’ curb ramps because they are oriented towards the center of the intersection rather than towards the crosswalk.  Newer sidewalks should have one curb ramp for each crosswalk.  Sometimes, it is not physically possible for the running slope of these curb ramps to be aligned with the crosswalk because the base of the ramp should be square to the gutter to avoid causing tipping problems for users of wheelchairs and other wheeled mobility devices (Proposed PROWAG R305.2.1).

DWS provide a tactile equivalent underfoot of the visible curb line, which is the boundary between a roadway and a sidewalk area.  They are required to contrast visually with adjacent walking surfaces either light-on-dark, or dark-on-light (2010 Standards Section 705.1.3; Proposed PROWAG R305.1.3). Often, DWS are yellowish orange in color, known as federal or safety yellow, an approximation of FS 33538 of SAE AMS-STD-595A (formerly FS 33538 of Federal Standard 595C), though they may be installed with different colors. For examples of state government provisions for the use of federal yellow DWS, see Section 11B-705.1.1.3.1, Chapter 11B, California Building Code; Section 4, 3-406.00, Chapter 3, Tennessee Department of Transportation Roadway Design Guidelines; and 8-14.3(5)A, Division 8, Washington Department of Transportation Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction M 41-10. In cold climates, where snowplowing is common, cast iron DWS are becoming common and these weather to a rusty color.

DWS should be located across the base of the curb ramp, just behind the curb line. If these surfaces are placed too far from the curb line because of a large corner radius, the location may compromise effective crossing by PWVDs (Proposed PROWAG R305.2.1). They are not intended to provide wayfinding for PWVDs (Proposed PROWAG R208.1). (Research has shown that pedestrians who have vision disabilities are not able to align accurately based on DWS) (Scott et al. 2011).

DWS consist of truncated domes aligned on a square grid pattern placed behind and along the curb line in the predominant direction of travel (running slope); they may not be aligned with the direction of the crosswalk.  The alignment of the truncated domes on a square grid instead of a diagonal pattern should be perpendicular to the grade break between the ramp run and the street to permit greater safety and negotiability of the passage of the wheels of mobility devices between domes. Where DWS are provided on a surface with a slope that is less than 5 percent, dome orientation is less critical (Proposed PROWAG R305.2.1).

In narrower sidewalks with a width of 5 feet (1,524 mm) or less, parallel curb ramps are common and are installed in the sidewalk (also referred to as curb-attached sidewalks, or sidewalks at back of curb) along the street edge. These curb ramps have a running slope that is in line with the direction of pedestrian sidewalk travel, and the sidewalk lowers to a level landing at street level where a pedestrian can make a turn to enter the pedestrian street crossing or continue traveling around the corner. Parallel curb ramps may be diagonal or have a shared landing, with only one location to cross from at the corner, or there may be two landing areas, one for each crossing.  In the case when there are two parallel curb ramps, the pedestrian will find the sidewalk sloping up and down twice as they turn a corner (2010 Standards Section 406.6; Proposed PROWAG R207.2, R304.1, R304.3, R304.5, R305.2.2).

One of the more confusing aspects of a parallel curb ramp is there may be a curb at the back of its landing to keep dirt or landscaping from washing down into the turning space.  So, there is the potential the PWVDs may find themselves walking down a sloping sidewalk to an area that is located between a DWS and a low curb.  In most cases, they are still on the sidewalk, but it can be confusing to find a curb on the backside of the landing and DWS on the streetside where there is a flush transition free of any abrupt changes between the roadway and the sidewalk. DWS are required to be installed on the sidewalk along the curb line at the landing, for the full width of the edge which is at street level (MUTCD Section 3B.18, paragraph 18; Proposed PROWAG R305.2.2, R305.2.3).

In some cities, a combination of these two curb ramp types is used.  First, the sidewalk slopes down a bit, connecting to a level landing from which a pair of short perpendicular curb ramps connects to the street. 

Some cities use “blended transitions” in which the whole corner slopes gently down to the intersection at a grade of 5 percent or less between the sidewalk and the level of the roadway.  This is often called a “depressed corner.” In these transitions where there is little slope from the sidewalk into the street, the DWS are required to extend in a curve from one crosswalk to the other, providing limited information about the location of crosswalks. (Proposed PROWAG R105.5 [Blended Transition, Grade Break], R208.1, R304.1, R304.4, R304.5, R305.1.4, R305.2.3). 

Similar low-slope connections will be found where the crosswalk itself is raised to sidewalk level (height) — a raised crossing, sometimes also described as a speed table for its traffic-calming effects. Raised crossings can provide accessibility in very narrow sidewalks where there is little room for curb ramps. Because there is no slope or gutter to identify these raised crossings, DWS will be the only indication of the blended transition boundary between sidewalk and street or speed table (Proposed PROWAG R105.5 [Blended Transition], R304.1, R305.2.3).

For more general information regarding raised crossings/speed tables, consult with the internet where there are many resources, such as the Federal Highway Administration “Raised Crosswalk, Safe Transportation for Every Pedestrian, Countermeasure Tech Sheet,” and the National Association of City Transportation Officials (NACTO) Urban Street Design Guide, “Speed Table.”

Additionally, raised medians and pedestrian refuge islands can be provided in the center of a street at intersection or mid-block locations to help protect pedestrians from vehicular traffic. These raised structures may have a cut-through passageway(s) at roadway level or may have curb ramps onto and off of them.  In either case, DWS are required at the curb line to indicate the boundary between the median or island, and the street (MUTCD Section 3B.18 paragraph 9, Section 3I.06; Proposed PROWAG R204.3, R208.1, R302.3.1, R305.1.4, R305.2.4).

However, in the Proposed PROWAG analysis, “detectable warning surfaces are not required at pedestrian refuge islands that are cut through at street level and are less than 1.8 meters (6 feet) in length in the direction of pedestrian travel….” The explanation given in the Proposed PROWAG is “…detectable warning surfaces must extend 610 millimeters (2 feet) minimum on each side of the island and be separated by a 610 millimeters (2 feet) minimum length of island without detectable warning surfaces”. Otherwise, “installing detectable warning surfaces at cut-through pedestrian islands that are less than 1.8 meters (6 feet) in length would compromise the effectiveness of detectable warning surfaces”. The Proposed PROWAG “…recommends that where a cut-through pedestrian island is less than 1.8 meters (6 feet) in length and the pedestrian street crossing is signalized, the signal should be timed for a complete crossing of the street” (see Proposed PROWAG R208.2, R305.1.4, R305.2.4). 

Finally, the underfoot cues provided by curb ramps — slope, DWS, gutter counter slope — can augment cues about street location obtained from traffic sounds.  Nevertheless, PWVDs must understand curb ramps and blended transitions are not accurate indicators of crossing direction and should not be relied on as an indication of the direction of the crossing. 

Strategies for detecting the end of the sidewalk

Travel strategies for approaching an intersection and detecting the street edge or end of the sidewalk include:

  • Assessment of audible traffic cues, both moving and idling.
  • Attention to changes in building line, intersecting sidewalks, locations of poles and “street furniture” commonly located at corners.
  • Constant contact technique to detect small changes; slowing to maintain the line of approach.  Note: The constant contact technique is a method of using the long white cane in a side-to-side motion, maintaining continual contact of the cane tip with the walking surface as the cane clears the area ahead of the forward foot.
  • Attention to small changes in slope (a curb ramp) or texture (a DWS).
  • Cane exploration to the side when the PWVD thinks they have reached the street edge on a curb ramp.  Contacting a curb to the side will confirm that they are standing on a curb ramp.
  • Pushbutton locator tones of APS.

Possible modifications

To help detect the street/sidewalk boundary, the PWVD should request the installation of DWS, APS, or other accessible features. The pushbutton locator tone of an APS can indicate to the PWVD that they are close to the street, while providing wayfinding information to assist in making a crossing.

 

Locating the Crosswalk

Traditional strategies for locating the crosswalk assume that the sidewalk, curb ramp or blended transition, and the crosswalk itself, are all in-line with the PWVD’s approach heading so they can maintain their line of approach when coming to a curb or corner. However, sidewalks and streets and their intersections are rarely so standardized these days. 

The PWVD is to remember that the curb ramp (excluding any flared sides) or blended transition serving crosswalks is to be contained wholly within the width of the pedestrian street crossing served (MUTCD Section 3B.18, paragraph 17; 2010 Standards Section 406.5; Proposed PROWAG R207.1).  The location of the curb ramp or blended transition may provide a good cue about the crosswalk location.

If the PWVD reaches the street from the curb ramp or blended transition area, DWS will indicate to them that they have arrived at the street.  However, the DWS may not be lined up with the crossing direction nor indicate a good crossing direction.

Often, the PWVD may find the crosswalk to be offset and away from the corner. Streets may curve or widen to add vehicle lanes or have large corner radii (long curvature of the corner) to allow vehicular traffic to turn at higher speed. Corners having large radii usually have curb ramps that are not in line with the direction of travel on the associated crosswalk, lengthen pedestrian crossing distances, and increase the potential severity of vehicle-pedestrian collisions.

In some locations, one leg of the crossing of the major street may be closed to pedestrians without any accessible information (like a fence or other barrier) for PWVDs.

Streets that don’t meet at right angles will have angled crossings, and crosswalks may be farther from the corner than expected. 

Some intersections are engineered with separated (channelized) right turn lanes or roundabouts.  Where there are separated right turn lanes or roundabouts, the crosswalk is likely to be on a very gradually rounded corner, and it is easy for PWVDs to miss it, especially if there is no landscaping between the sidewalk and the street.  The crosswalk will usually lead to an island or median, from which the PWVD will need to locate the crosswalk to continue their crossing. 

The absence of crosswalk markings at corners of an intersection does not mean that there is no crosswalk.  Legally, crosswalks exist between any two opposite corners at an intersection, unless they are marked “No crossing.”  A cane-detectable barrier is recommended wherever there is no crossing between opposite corners of an intersection, but this is relatively uncommon.

Strategies to locate crosswalks

Strategies to locate crosswalks and confirm that they are for the street a PWVD is wanting to cross require relying on an evaluation of the corner location and traffic movement in all directions. This takes time.

  1.  The PWVD needs to listen to traffic traveling in the same direction as they are going (parallel traffic) as they approach a corner.  They need to determine if the parallel traffic seems to be moving behind them, or if they are no longer sure which is the parallel traffic.  It may be suspected that they are at a large-radius corner, a channelized turn lane, or roundabout where it is necessary to cross to an island and then to complete the crossing from the island. The PWVD needs to listen more carefully for cues that indicate what the intersection geometry may be.  Then, the individual needs to be aware if their body is turning or the cane is dropping off the curb to the side to avoid thinking they are veering toward the street, instead of the street curving around the corner. The individual needs to stop and listen for traffic on both streets and consider asking another pedestrian, if one might be present, about the geometry.
  2.  The PWVD should trail the outside shoreline or curb while being careful of turning traffic and use a wide cane technique to find the curb ramp or blended transition.  Next, they need to analyze the relationship of the curb ramps and blended transitions with moving traffic.  This means, listening carefully for parallel and perpendicular traffic to decide whether the curb ramp is perpendicular with the street they want to cross or is an apex (single diagonal) curb ramp directed toward the center of the intersection.
  3.  The PWVD is to position themself on the side of the curb ramp furthest away from the center of the intersection; this will usually be within the crosswalk area and puts them close to parallel traffic but not too close.  Many feel that it is often the best place to begin crossing from.
  4.  The PWVD should expect to find crosswalks (and curb ramps) at channelized turn lanes about halfway between the parallel and perpendicular streets.
  5.  At roundabouts, the crosswalk for the parallel street will be before the PWVD reaches the corner and the crosswalk for crossing the perpendicular street will be after they have completely rounded the corner.  They will have to turn toward the street to cross.
  6.  The PWVD must be aware that the presence of DWS does not mean that there is a safe crossing at that location. There may be no type of traffic signal or beacon at the crossing that makes it likely that drivers will yield for a pedestrian to cross (MUTCD 4E.09 paragraph 10, 4E.11 paragraph 9, 4E.13 paragraphs 4-8).
  7.  Once the PWVD has located the crosswalk, they are to explore for landmarks that work well for them, which can be found reliably, and be used for alignment.

Possible modifications

When intersections are newly constructed or reconstructed, they should incorporate useful environmental cues, if technically feasible, such as:

  1.  Continuous landscaping between roadway curb and sidewalk, making curb ramp and blended transition locations more obvious.
  2.  Continuous barriers/fences to help define the travel path along the sidewalk.
  3.  Short corner radii (generally close to a right angle), which will permit directional curb ramps, reduce vehicular turning speeds, make it difficult for motorists to enter a sidewalk from the roadway, minimize pedestrian crossing distances, and reduce the potential severity of vehicle-pedestrian collisions.

However, it’s quite common to see newly built intersections without the above features.

Where effective cues to crossing location aren’t available at existing signalized intersections, the PWVD should contact the state or local department of transportation (sometimes the local agency is known as the department of public works) which has jurisdiction over the crossing to request the installation of an APS with a locator tone and tactile arrow to indicate crossing direction.  Also, the request should include, whenever possible, the installation of planters or landscape strips to frame the sidewalk and crosswalk, particularly at roundabouts (MUTCD Sections 4E.08 - 4E.13; Proposed PROWAG R209, R306.3.1).

 

Aligning to Cross

Traditional strategies for PWVDs aligning to cross assumed that the crosswalk was relatively well-aligned with the direction of travel on the sidewalk and included:

  1.  Maintaining the line of approach.
  2.  Aligning with parallel traffic (traffic moving alongside them in the same direction as their desired crossing).
  3.  Squaring off with perpendicular traffic (traffic that the individual is intending to cross) and/or curb.

With the non-traditional curb ramp and sidewalk designs being used now, it may be very difficult to maintain a straight line of approach. Also, with the need to push a pedestrian pushbutton to have adequate time to cross the street, it is not usually possible for the PWVD to hold the approach line and cross because of the necessity to find and use the pushbutton before crossing. 

In many instances, there is little or no parallel traffic, such as when the pedestrian is crossing a major street with little regular traffic on the minor street, the “top” of a T-intersection, or an offset intersection. Additional time may be needed by a PWVD to carefully analyze crossing direction where parallel streams of traffic don’t provide good cues.  Some intersections have angled and/or multiple legs and there is no standard for crosswalk orientation.  At those kinds of locations, some crosswalks may be perpendicular to the street (and thus the shortest crossing), while others will take the angle of the intersection (requiring longer travel in the street, but possibly being more parallel to traffic).  Finding the curb ramp(s), one can identify the departure point, but the direction of the crosswalk may be unclear.

The PWVD will find parallel/perpendicular sound cues not to be available at channelized right turn lanes (slip lanes) that diverge from one street direction to connect to the intersecting street.  Crossing this lane will connect them to a pedestrian refuge island, which has curb ramps or cut-through blended transitions, where pedestrians can stop before finishing crossing a road.  From the island, the PWVD can cross the major streets using standard techniques.  These channelized turn lanes will typically have one crosswalk with a curb ramp or blended transition at the apex (or center) of the curve.  The curb ramp may provide useful cues to crossing direction; crossing perpendicular to traffic movement can be a good strategy if the PWVD knows the crosswalk is at the center of the curve.  The same technique may work in circular intersections — roundabouts and large rotaries, but the crosswalks may be angled in ways that make it very difficult for the PWVD to determine appropriate alignment.  Landscaping, curb ramp direction and other cues may be helpful, but traffic sound cues will not usually provide good alignment cues.

Strategies for determining travel direction should not rely on curb ramp slope or DWS orientation, as these may be designed for wheelchair travel.  Work is underway nationally to promote more directional curb ramps, but existing ramps may not be replaced for many years.  As mentioned earlier, the perpendicular or parallel curb ramp and DWS can identify a starting point for the PWVD, since the base of the ramp must be within the crosswalk.

Strategies for aligning to cross

All these changes require some variations in how the PWVD aligns for a crossing. 

  1.  To align with the direction of travel at an unfamiliar crossing, the individual needs to approach the intersection, holding their direction of approach as well as they can, and stop at the curb or edge of the street.  Then, they need to listen to the flow of traffic and determine if it is or is not a signalized intersection.  If it is signalized, they need to listen to a few cycles of the light to try to get a good sense of traffic movement and alignment. 

Parallel traffic is usually, but not always, moving in alignment with the crosswalk direction. Through traffic on the street parallel to the PWVD’s crosswalk usually provides the most reliable and accurate cue for alignment if the individual has unimpaired hearing. Listening for the traffic on the perpendicular street, both moving traffic and idling traffic, may also be useful for alignment.

The PWVD needs to listen for where the vehicles stop for the light.  Although not required, most street crossings have a stop line (also known as a “stop bar”) to indicate the point behind which vehicles are required to stop in compliance with controlled crossings. If used, the stop line should be placed a minimum of 4 feet (1219.2 mm) in advance of the nearest crosswalk line at controlled crossings (MUTCD Section 3B.16). 

Driver compliance with stopping at stop lines varies. A good rule-of-thumb is for the PWVD to have an alignment at multi-lane crossings where they pass just in front of all idling vehicles. They must remember that some drivers will stop beyond the stop line, and even into the crosswalk, to better see approaching perpendicular traffic.

When the PWVD feels they are aligned for the crossing, and have determined that the intersection is signalized, it’s usually necessary for them to leave that location and find a pedestrian pushbutton to call the pedestrian signal.

Before searching for and using a pushbutton, the PWVD needs to align for the desired crossing and find a tactile landmark that gives them a good directional cue to return to before looking for the pushbutton. After pushing the pushbutton, the individual will return to the landmark and use it to re-align quickly. 

  1. Poles, grass edging, slope changes, angle of the curb, street edge or curb ramp can all combine to confirm the correct alignment for PWVDs.  Also, asking other pedestrians may be helpful. 
     
  2. If an APS is installed, the pushbutton locator tone will help the PWVD find the pushbutton and raised tactile arrow.  The arrow on the APS is required to be aligned parallel to the direction of travel on the associated crosswalk, which can then be used to confirm their travel direction and that they have found the APS for their crossing (MUTCD Section 4E.12, paragraph 1; Proposed PROWAG R209).  However, the reality is, arrows aren’t always installed correctly, so the PWVD must use all cues and information available to them to confirm their alignment at an unfamiliar location.  In case an APS is installed incorrectly, the PWVD should contact their state or local department of transportation (sometimes the local agency is known as the department of public works) which has jurisdiction over the site to speak with a traffic and/or signal engineer to discuss these issues and to educate them on the need for correct alignment of the arrow(s) and/or pushbutton pole(s).
     
  3. The PWVD needs to be ready to adjust their alignment while crossing. They are to watch for and use straight-through traffic (not turning traffic) to align with while crossing.  The raised edges of highly visually contrasting crosswalk markings, the slope and camber of the street, the traffic waiting on the perpendicular street, or a change in surface materials may help to refine the PWVD’s heading.

Possible modifications

Where traditional cues aren’t effective, the PWVD should confer with the traffic and/or signal engineers who have jurisdiction to develop a treatment that provides the needed information, whether it is a landmark, beacon, tactile guidestrip, or directional curb ramp(s) that can be relied on.  They should ask first about the intersection geometry, since there may be a good alignment cue nearby.

 

Advocating for Modifications to Address Street Crossing Challenges

The more a PWVD knows about a particular crossing that is hard for them, the more effective they will be in figuring out a solution.  The individual should take the time and use their experiences and observation skills to analyze each situation carefully. If there are other pedestrians nearby, they should pay attention to what the others are doing and, if comfortable, ask for advice.

PWVDs should always consider receiving supplementary Orientation and Mobility training to determine if there is a need for updated intersection assessment skills development from a Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist (COMS).  The COMS can verify if the PWVD does have an assessment skills development issue(s) and if needed, provide the training.  If there is no issue, the COMS can offer to state or local traffic and/or signal engineers or planners (whichever is applicable) suggested modifications to address the problem(s) with street crossings.   

A PWVD should consider advocating for installation of specific modifications that can assist them in locating crosswalks and aligning properly for safe street crossings.  The more the individual knows about the specific crossing, and specific modifications that may be helpful to them, the more effective they will be when discussing with state or local traffic and/or signal engineers the various problem solutions or modifications available to these professionals.  Engineers should always be familiar with DWS and with APS.

However, too often, the reality is traffic and/or signal engineers are not always aware of the research work behind these well-studied and helpful modifications.  The research work will be described in Part 2 of this article.


References

California Building Standards Commission. (2019). California Building Code, Title 24, Part 2 (Volumes 1 & 2) with July 2021 supplement.

National Association of City Transportation Officials. (October 2013). Speed Table. Urban Street Design Guide. Island Press.

Scott, A., Barlow, J., Guth, D., Bentzen, B.L., Cunningham, C., & Long, R. (2011). Nonvisual cues for aligning to cross streets. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 105:648-661.

Tennessee Department of Transportation. (Revised November 15, 2021).  Roadway Design Guidelines.

U.S. Access Board. (2013). (Proposed) public rights-of-way accessibility guidelines. 

U.S. Department of Justice. (September 15, 2010). 2010 ADA standards for accessible design.

U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. (2009 edition, including Revision 1 dated May 2012 and Revision 2 dated May 2012). Manual on uniform traffic control devices for streets and highways.

U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. (June 2018). Raised crosswalk safe transportation for everyone countermeasure tech sheet.

Washington Department of Transportation. (August 22, 2021). Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction M41-10 2022.


Part 2 article on Finding the Crosswalk and Aligning to Cross

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